Animals and the Greco-Roman World

There were approximately 1,500 Greek city-states (poleis) in the Classical era, and sacrifices featured in every one of them. As such, animals were constantly involved in the core elements of Greek society and cults, and this centrality could be found in the numerous depictions of animals on coins and vases throughout Greece and Greek colonies.[1] Greek thinkers and philosophers also endlessly debated issues relating to animals, which resulted in the Greeks acquiring formidable knowledge about the creatures with whom they came in contact. All the while, animals were important sources of food, companionship, and labor, and they also featured significantly in warfare.

The majority of animal species in modern Greece are by and large the same as those that were around in ancient times. Game and fish were plentiful, along with deer, wolves, boar, lynx, and even bears. Similarly, there were numerous jackals and porcupines. There were, however, a few significant species that would have been found in the wild in Classical times, such as the agrimis (or Cretan goat) and the lion, that have either become totally extinct or virtually extinct in the modern-day region. Lions, in particular, often feature in Greek literature, and both Herodotus and Aristotle described lions in northern Greece. The presence of lions in Greece seems further confirmed by their numerous portrayals in Mycenaean art and tales of lions in Homer.

Another use for foreign animals was in the preparation of medicines. Animals captured during military conflicts were considered spoils of war, suggesting their status was that of an object. On the other hand, reflecting the Greek ambiguity and ambivalence toward their status, various philosophical debates of the time indicate that animals could also be prosecuted for committing crimes and punished accordingly. It is also apparent that ancient Greeks knew a considerable amount about their animals, as various written works that survived often reflected the ethical and scientific debates surrounding them. Archaeological evidence confirms that animals were closely observed and accurately portrayed by both artists and medical practitioners.

Rome's complex relationship with animals goes right back to its foundation myth, and even today, the wolf remains a symbol of the Eternal City, forming part of the logo for the capital's football team, A. S. Roma. According to tradition, the city of Rome was founded by Romulus, who, with his brother Remus, was nursed and sheltered by a she-wolf. That tale, widely believed as a historical fact by ancient Romans, had a profound influence on Roman culture, and in part that shaped Roman attitudes toward their animals. The actual cave where Romulus and Remus were said to have been raised, the Lupercal, is thought to have been situated on the Palatine Hill in the very heart of Rome, and there was a claim by some archaeologists it had been found in 2007. True or not, the story of the wolf and its link to the beginnings of Rome continues to intrigue modern citizens, and the recent return of a family of wolves to the outskirts of Rome was greeted with wild enthusiasm.

Other than the tale of the she-wolf with Romulus and Remus, the overriding images and stories of Roman animals that have come down through popular culture to modern times largely concern the vicious animal fights put on in the Colosseum, stories of Christians being thrown to the lions, and Hannibal's invasion of Italy with elephants. Indeed, the widely accepted view is that Romans were uncommonly brutal to their animals and had little empathy for them, and in terms of the Romans' scientific knowledge about animals, it appears much of it came to them from the Greeks. In addition to the many treatises from such authorities as Aristotle, they were also influenced by Greek debates about the nature and origin of animals, their place in the world vis a vis humanity, and ethical issues.